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GNDU Question Paper-2022

M.A 1

Semester

Paper-IV: Polity and Economy of India (A.D. 1526-1750)

Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 80

Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section.

The Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION-A

1. Subsidiary alliance of Lord Wellesley based on Imperial ideology. Discuss.

Ans: The Subsidiary Alliance was a significant part of British expansion in India during the

late 18th and early 19th centuries, particularly under the leadership of Lord Wellesley, who

was Governor-General from 1798 to 1805. It was a strategic and imperialistic tool that

played a key role in extending British dominance over Indian princely states.

What was the Subsidiary Alliance?

The Subsidiary Alliance was a treaty between the British East India Company and Indian

rulers. The primary condition was that Indian states had to accept the stationing of a British

force within their territory and make regular payments for its upkeep. The state could no

longer maintain its own military forces, and its foreign policy would be guided by the British.

Moreover, the Indian rulers were forbidden from entering into alliances with any other

foreign powers.

Lord Wellesley's Role and Imperial Ideology

Before Wellesley, the British had used alliances as a defensive measure, but Wellesley

transformed this into an aggressive imperial policy aimed at expanding British control.

Under his leadership, the Subsidiary Alliance became a tool to undermine the sovereignty of

Indian princely states. By controlling the military and diplomatic affairs of these states, the

British gradually absorbed them into their sphere of influence.

Wellesley's imperial ideology was based on the notion that the British Empire had a civilizing

mission, which justified the extension of their control. He believed that Indian rulers were

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incapable of managing their own states effectively, and British oversight was necessary to

maintain order. This sense of moral superiority drove British imperialism in India, with the

Subsidiary Alliance as a key method of implementing it.

How Did the Alliance Work?

The Subsidiary Alliance system worked through various stages:

1. The Indian state had to disband its own army and accept British troops for

protection.

2. The British took charge of the state's external affairs, ensuring that they would not

form any other alliances.

3. The ruler would be required to pay for the stationed British forces.

4. In cases where the state could not meet the financial demands, territories were

ceded to the British as compensation.

By forcing Indian rulers to accept British troops and disband their own, the princely states

became protectorates of the British East India Company. In practice, these states lost their

sovereignty, even if they retained nominal rulers. The British stationed representatives, or

residents, in these states, further solidifying their control.

Impact on Indian States

The Subsidiary Alliance led to a significant shift in the power dynamics of India. Indian rulers

were left with little more than ceremonial power. Over time, many states were completely

absorbed into the British Empire, with their rulers either deposed or left as figureheads.

One of the first significant instances of the Subsidiary Alliance was with the state of

Hyderabad in 1798. The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to sign this treaty, followed by

other states such as Mysore and Awadh. These alliances helped the British eliminate French

influence in India and strengthened their military position.

Economic and Social Consequences

While the British Empire benefited immensely from the Subsidiary Alliance, it had severe

economic and social repercussions for the Indian states. The heavy financial burden of

maintaining the British military forces often led to economic decline in these regions.

Furthermore, the weakening of the native military forces led to a rise in unemployment and

contributed to social unrest in many areas.

The extraction of resources by the British also led to widespread poverty. Indian states were

required to give up large amounts of revenue to maintain the British forces, often leading to

the neglect of their own people and infrastructure. This further weakened the power of the

Indian rulers and made them dependent on the British.

Conclusion

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In essence, Lord Wellesley's Subsidiary Alliance was an imperial strategy designed to bring

Indian states under British control while allowing them nominal independence. It reflected

Wellesley's belief in the superiority of British governance and military power, and his

willingness to impose it upon Indian rulers. Over time, the alliance system facilitated the

gradual annexation of these states, reshaping the political and economic landscape of India

during the British colonial period.

2. Write a note on decline of Indian Industries and Indian drain of wealth during colonial

period.

Ans: The decline of Indian industries and the drain of wealth during the colonial period were

deeply intertwined and had significant long-term impacts on India's economy. These

phenomena were a result of British policies that prioritized their own economic interests

over India's.

Decline of Indian Industries

1. Deindustrialization: Before British rule, India was known for its flourishing textile

and handicrafts industries, especially cotton and silk production. Indian textiles were

globally renowned, and the industry provided livelihoods to millions of artisans and

workers. However, with the advent of British colonial rule, especially after the

Industrial Revolution in Britain, India saw a sharp decline in its industrial base. British

policies intentionally suppressed local industries to promote British-manufactured

goods.

o Cheap Imports: The British flooded the Indian market with machine-made

textiles that were much cheaper than locally produced goods. British goods

entered India with little or no tariffs, while Indian goods faced high tariffs

when exported to Britain. This created an unequal playing field, leading to

the collapse of Indian industries, particularly in textiles

Destruction of Handicrafts: British policies also stifled traditional handicrafts

and artisanal production. The rise in the cost of raw materials, combined with

the imposition of taxes on local products, made it impossible for Indian

artisans to compete. The decline of these industries led to widespread

unemployment and poverty among skilled workers who had depended on

these trades for centuries.

2. Taxation and Trade Policies: The colonial administration introduced exploitative

taxation policies. Indian producers were taxed heavily, while British imports were

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taxed lightly or not at all. This further undermined local industries, as the British

prioritized the extraction of resources and profits for the benefit of their own

economy.

3. Agriculture Focus: As industrial activity dwindled, India became primarily an agrarian

economy. However, even agriculture was subject to exploitation, as the British

forced Indian farmers to grow cash crops like cotton, indigo, and opium instead of

food crops. This led to food shortages, famine, and further economic destabilization.

Indian Drain of Wealth

The "drain of wealth" refers to the systematic transfer of wealth from India to Britain during

the colonial period. Several mechanisms contributed to this drain:

1. Direct Economic Exploitation: The British extracted raw materials from India and

exported them to Britain, where they were processed into finished goods. These

finished goods were then sold back to India at a higher price. This trade imbalance

drained India of its wealth, as profits from trade were repatriated to Britain.

2. Taxes and Revenue Collection: The British imposed heavy taxes on Indian peasants

and producers. The revenue collected was used to fund British administrative costs

and military expenditures in India, as well as Britain’s broader imperial ambitions. A

significant portion of this revenue never stayed in India; instead, it was remitted to

Britain.

3. Payment for British Officials and Military: British civil servants, army officers, and

other officials were paid from Indian revenues. These officials, many of whom were

not even based in India, received high salaries, and their pensions were paid from

Indian coffers. This was another way wealth was drained from India to support the

British establishment.

4. Home Charges: India had to pay for the costs of its own administration and the

salaries of British officials through what were called "Home Charges." This included

interest payments on loans Britain had taken out, as well as pensions for retired

British officials. All these payments were made from Indian revenue and transferred

to Britain, causing a significant outflow of wealth.

5. Railway Construction: While the British introduced railways in India, they were

primarily built to serve British economic interests. The railways were used to

transport raw materials from the interiors of India to ports for export to Britain.

Moreover, much of the capital used to build these railways came from British

investors, and the profits were repatriated to Britain, further contributing to the

drain of wealth.

Consequences

1. Economic Backwardness: By the time India gained independence in 1947, it had

been reduced from one of the richest economies in the world to one of the poorest.

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The drain of wealth and the collapse of industries left India economically crippled,

with widespread poverty, unemployment, and underdevelopment.

2. Famine and Agricultural Crisis: The shift to cash crops, coupled with poor

agricultural policies, led to recurring famines during British rule, such as the Great

Bengal Famine of 1943, which resulted in millions of deaths.

3. Lack of Industrial Growth: Even as Britain experienced rapid industrialization, India

lagged behind due to the deliberate suppression of its industries. By the 20th

century, India had become a supplier of raw materials rather than a manufacturer of

goods. The decline of traditional industries and the absence of modern industrial

growth left India without a strong economic base at the time of independence.

In summary, British colonial policies led to the destruction of India's traditional industries

and caused a massive drain of wealth from India to Britain. This economic exploitation

resulted in widespread poverty, unemployment, and underdevelopment, the effects of

which are still evident in India today. The legacy of this exploitation was a key factor in the

rise of anti-colonial movements and India’s eventual struggle for independence(

SECTION-B

3. Write a note on struggle for Indian press by Indians.

Ans: The struggle for the Indian press by Indians was a crucial part of the broader fight

against British colonial rule. The press served as a significant platform for expressing

nationalist ideas, criticizing British policies, and mobilizing public opinion. This began as

early as the 18th century and continued well into the 20th century, influencing India's

freedom struggle.

1. Early Development and British Censorship: James Augustus Hickey is credited with

starting the first newspaper in India, The Bengal Gazette in 1780, but it was soon

shut down for its critical stance against the British government. The British

administration viewed the press as a threat and introduced several laws to suppress

its freedom. The first significant regulation was the Censorship of Press Act of 1799,

enacted during the Napoleonic Wars to control publications that might incite

rebellion. This was followed by the Licensing Regulations of 1823, which required

publishers to obtain a license, giving the government full control over the press.

2. Role of Indian Reformers: Indian reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy recognized the

importance of press freedom and opposed these regulations. In the early 19th

century, he launched publications like Mirat-ul-Akhbar and Sambad Kaumudi to

advocate for social and political reforms. His protests laid the foundation for the

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later struggle by Indian journalists and reformers who wanted to use the press to

awaken national consciousness.

3. Formation of Nationalist Newspapers: By the late 19th century, a number of Indian-

run newspapers played a central role in shaping public opinion. These included

Kesari and Maharatta run by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, The Bengalee by Surendranath

Banerjee, and The Hindu by G. Subramania Iyer. These papers took on the

responsibility of informing the masses about British injustices and mobilizing them to

support the national movement. Newspapers like Kesari were instrumental in

spreading nationalist sentiment, especially in regional languages, making the

freedom struggle accessible to rural and urban populations alike.

4. The Vernacular Press Act (1878): The British, fearing the influence of vernacular

newspapers, introduced the draconian Vernacular Press Act in 1878, specifically

targeting non-English publications that were seen as spreading sedition. This act

gave the government the authority to censor vernacular newspapers, suppress

publications, and seize printing presses. Newspapers like Amrita Bazar Patrika,

originally published in Bengali, switched to English overnight to bypass the

restrictions of this act.

5. The Indian Press Act of 1910: As the freedom movement intensified, the British

passed the Indian Press Act of 1910, which allowed local governments to demand

security deposits from newspaper publishers and seize publications that were

deemed "anti-government." This law aimed to control the growing nationalist press,

which had begun using the press as a tool to highlight the failures of British policies,

such as during the Bengal famine and the partition of Bengal in 1905.

6. Indian Journalists and Nationalism: Indian journalists played a crucial role in the

freedom struggle. Figures like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who was charged with sedition in

1897, became symbols of the fight for press freedom. Tilak used his newspapers,

Kesari and Maharatta, to encourage anti-British sentiment and mobilize people for

various movements like the Swadeshi Movement and the boycott of British goods.

7. Impact of Newspapers on Public Awareness: Newspapers were not merely sources

of information but also centers of political education. Articles and editorials in

nationalist papers were read aloud in public spaces, even in remote villages, allowing

widespread dissemination of revolutionary ideas. Local libraries became hubs of

political activity where these discussions furthered public participation in the

independence movement.

8. Legal and Political Struggles for Press Freedom: Throughout the late 19th and early

20th centuries, many Indian leaders and journalists were imprisoned for their

outspoken writings. In 1883, Surendranath Banerjee became the first Indian

journalist to be imprisoned, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak followed, facing multiple

sedition charges. The courage of these journalists and their ability to sidestep

censorship through innovative methods—such as quoting foreign newspapers critical

of the British—kept the spirit of rebellion alive.

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9. Press and Mass Movements: By the 20th century, the press became a powerful tool

in mass movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement and Civil Disobedience

Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi. Newspapers like Young India, Navajivan, and

Harijan, published by Gandhi, were used to communicate his ideology of non-

violence and Swaraj to the masses. The press, under Indian control, was

instrumental in shaping the narrative of the freedom struggle.

10. Post-World War Press Developments: The press remained a contentious issue up

until India’s independence in 1947. The colonial government continued to pass

emergency laws to restrict press freedom, especially during critical movements like

the Quit India Movement in 1942. However, the persistence of Indian journalists,

combined with rising nationalist sentiments, made it difficult for the British to fully

suppress the press.

In conclusion, the struggle for press freedom in India was an essential part of the broader

freedom struggle. The press, controlled and shaped by Indian nationalists, was a critical

medium for resisting British rule, educating the public, and mobilizing mass movements for

independence. Even under severe repression, the Indian press became a bastion of hope

and a voice for the voiceless, ultimately playing a key role in achieving India's freedom.

4. Define Indian demand for local self government and constitutional reforms by British

Government.

ANS: The demand for local self-government in India and subsequent constitutional reforms

by the British government arose as a result of growing political awareness, the rise of

nationalist movements, and the pressure exerted by Indian leaders. This movement began

in the late 19th century and intensified in the early 20th century, eventually leading to a

series of legislative reforms aimed at addressing Indian demands for greater political

representation and self-rule.

1. Early Developments and Indian National Congress (INC) Demands

The Indian National Congress (INC), established in 1885, played a critical role in articulating

these demands. Initially, INC sought modest reforms, calling for the inclusion of more

Indians in government positions and legislative councils. However, over time, their demands

evolved towards greater self-governance, spurred by events like the partition of Bengal in

1905 and the rise of leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who called for "Swaraj" (self-rule).

2. The Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

One of the first significant responses by the British government to Indian demands was the

Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909. These reforms introduced separate electorates for Muslims,

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giving them a distinct political identity, and increased Indian representation in the legislative

councils. However, the powers of these councils remained limited, and the reforms did little

to address the broader aspirations of the Indian populace for self-governance.

3. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Government of India Act (1919)

The British government took more significant steps with the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms,

leading to the Government of India Act of 1919. This Act introduced the concept of

"dyarchy" in the provinces, where certain areas of administration were transferred to Indian

ministers while others remained under the control of the British governor. The Act

expanded the electorate and increased Indian participation in both central and provincial

legislative councils.

While the Act was a move towards self-government, it fell short of Indian expectations, as

key powers such as finance, policing, and defense remained firmly in British hands. It also

continued the policy of separate electorates, deepening communal divisions between

Hindus and Muslims

4. Growing Frustration and Non-Cooperation Movement

Despite the reforms of 1919, Indian leaders were dissatisfied. Mahatma Gandhi, who had

emerged as the foremost leader of the INC, launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in

1920. The movement called for complete non-cooperation with the British government,

including boycotting British goods, resigning from government jobs, and withdrawing from

British-run schools and courts. This movement was Gandhi’s attempt to force the British to

grant India complete self-rule. Although the movement was called off in 1922 after incidents

of violence, it marked a critical step towards India’s demand for full independence.

5. Simon Commission and Nehru Report (1927-1928)

The British response to growing unrest was the appointment of the Simon Commission in

1927, tasked with reviewing India's constitutional progress. However, the absence of any

Indian representation on the commission sparked widespread protests. In response, Indian

leaders prepared the Nehru Report in 1928, which called for Dominion Status within the

British Empire—a step short of complete independence but still a significant advancement

from the dyarchy system of 1919.

6. Government of India Act (1935)

Following further agitation and negotiations, the British introduced the Government of India

Act of 1935, which was the most comprehensive constitutional reform undertaken by the

British in India. The Act proposed an all-India federation and expanded provincial autonomy.

It also replaced dyarchy with provincial autonomy, where elected Indian representatives

held more control. However, defense, foreign affairs, and certain financial matters remained

under British control, and the Act continued to divide the electorate on communal lines.

While the 1935 Act laid the groundwork for a federal structure, it did not satisfy Indian

leaders, who by this time were increasingly demanding full independence, not merely

constitutional reforms

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7. Demand for Complete Independence

The demand for complete independence gained momentum during and after World War II,

with the INC rejecting further piecemeal reforms. The Quit India Movement, launched by

Gandhi in 1942, was a direct demand for the British to leave India altogether. The

movement was met with harsh repression, but it marked the final phase of India's struggle

for independence.

8. Post-War Developments and Indian Independence

Following the end of World War II, the weakened British government realized it could no

longer maintain control over India. The Labour government in Britain, sympathetic to the

Indian cause, initiated negotiations with Indian leaders, eventually leading to the Indian

Independence Act of 1947. This Act partitioned India into two independent dominions, India

and Pakistan, bringing an end to British rule.

Conclusion

The demand for local self-government in India evolved over several decades, with Indian

leaders progressively pushing for greater autonomy and, eventually, full independence. The

British government responded with a series of constitutional reforms, including the

Government of India Acts of 1919 and 1935, but these measures always fell short of Indian

expectations. The struggle culminated in India’s independence in 1947, ending nearly two

centuries of British rule.

This complex process of negotiation, agitation, and reform reflects both the determination

of Indian leaders and the limitations of British constitutional reform efforts. The journey

from modest demands for local self-governance to complete independence is a testament

to India's resilience and the political acumen of its leaders.

SECTION-C

5. Write in detail about Pitts India Act of 1784.

Ans: Pitt’s India Act of 1784: A Detailed Overview

The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was a significant piece of legislation passed by the British

Parliament to bring reforms to the way the British East India Company was managing its

territories in India. This act is also known as the East India Company Act of 1784 and was

named after William Pitt the Younger, who was the British Prime Minister at the time. The

act was a follow-up to the Regulating Act of 1773 and was introduced to address the

shortcomings of the previous act and tighten the British government’s control over the East

India Company’s administration in India.

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The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 is considered a turning point in British governance in India

because it marked the beginning of greater government intervention in the affairs of the

East India Company, which was originally a commercial trading organization. This act laid

the foundation for the dual control of India by both the British government and the East

India Company, which would last for many years.

Historical Background Leading to Pitt’s India Act

Before diving into the details of the act, it’s important to understand the historical context

in which it was introduced.

1. The East India Company’s Influence: The East India Company had been operating in

India since the early 1600s as a commercial trading company. However, by the mid-

18th century, the Company had acquired significant political and military power in

India, particularly after its victories in battles like the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the

Battle of Buxar (1764). These victories enabled the Company to gain control over

large parts of India, especially in Bengal.

2. Mismanagement and Corruption: As the East India Company became more

powerful, there were increasing reports of corruption, mismanagement, and

exploitation. The Company officials in India were often accused of accumulating

personal wealth at the expense of the Indian population. This created unrest in India

and drew criticism back in Britain. The British government began to take notice of

the situation and sought ways to regulate the Company's affairs more effectively.

3. The Regulating Act of 1773: In response to the problems in India, the British

Parliament passed the Regulating Act of 1773. This act was the first attempt to

regulate the East India Company’s activities in India. It established the position of the

Governor-General of Bengal, with Warren Hastings as the first person to hold this

position. The act also created a council to advise the Governor-General. However,

the Regulating Act did not go far enough in curbing corruption and mismanagement,

and tensions between Company officials and the British government continued.

4. American Revolution and Financial Crisis: During the same period, Britain was

involved in the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783), which put immense

financial pressure on the British government. The war’s expenses, combined with the

East India Company’s growing financial difficulties, made it clear that more effective

oversight was needed.

5. Need for Reform: After the American Revolution, the British government realized

that they needed to avoid similar issues in India. The Pitt’s India Act was introduced

to provide stricter control and accountability for the East India Company’s actions.

Key Provisions of Pitt’s India Act of 1784

The Pitt’s India Act introduced several important changes that restructured the way India

was governed by the East India Company. Below are the main provisions of the act:

1. Establishment of the Board of Control:

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One of the most important features of the Pitt’s India Act was the creation of the Board of

Control. This board was composed of six members, including two members of the British

Cabinet and four members appointed by the King. The primary role of the Board of Control

was to oversee the political affairs of the East India Company and ensure that the

Company’s policies were aligned with the interests of the British government.

• Government Oversight: The Board of Control was responsible for approving all of

the Company’s actions related to war, diplomacy, and other political matters. This

allowed the British government to have greater control over the Company’s

administration in India, especially in terms of its foreign relations and military

engagements.

• Separation of Political and Commercial Affairs: The Board of Control focused on the

political and administrative aspects of governance in India, while the East India

Company’s Court of Directors continued to manage the commercial and trade-

related activities of the Company. This division of responsibilities was meant to

prevent conflicts of interest and ensure better governance.

2. Strengthening of the Governor-General’s Authority:

The act further strengthened the authority of the Governor-General of Bengal. The

Governor-General was given greater power over the other two presidencies of the

Company, namely Madras and Bombay. This was done to create a more unified and

centralized system of administration in India, as the previous arrangement where each

presidency operated independently had led to confusion and inefficiency.

• Governor-General in Council: The Governor-General was assisted by a council, but

the Pitt’s India Act reduced the size of the council to just three members. This was

intended to streamline decision-making and reduce internal conflicts within the

council.

3. Introduction of Dual Control:

The Pitt’s India Act introduced the concept of dual control or double government. Under

this system, the British government, through the Board of Control, had the final say on

political matters, while the East India Company was still allowed to manage its trade and

commercial activities. This meant that the Company continued to function as a business, but

it could no longer act independently in political and military matters.

• Accountability to Parliament: The East India Company was required to provide

regular reports to the British Parliament on its activities in India. This ensured

greater transparency and accountability, and it allowed Parliament to keep a close

watch on how the Company was operating.

4. Revenue and Financial Reforms:

The Pitt’s India Act also introduced measures to improve the Company’s financial

management. It required the Company to submit detailed accounts of its revenues and

expenditures, which were to be reviewed by the British government. This was intended to

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prevent financial mismanagement and ensure that the Company’s profits were used

effectively.

5. Checks on the Company’s Military Power:

The act also placed restrictions on the East India Company’s ability to engage in military

conflicts without the approval of the British government. This was in response to concerns

that the Company’s aggressive expansion in India was leading to unnecessary wars and

conflicts, which were draining the Company’s resources and causing instability in the region.

Effects and Significance of Pitt’s India Act

The Pitt’s India Act had several long-term effects on both the governance of India and the

relationship between the British government and the East India Company. Some of the key

outcomes of the act are discussed below:

1. Increased Government Control:

The most significant effect of the Pitt’s India Act was the increased control that the British

government gained over the East India Company’s operations in India. By creating the Board

of Control, the British government ensured that it had a direct say in the political and

military decisions of the Company. This marked the beginning of a shift from the Company’s

independent rule to a system where the British government had a greater role in governing

India.

2. Foundation for Future Reforms:

The act laid the foundation for future reforms in the governance of India. Over time, the

British government would continue to increase its involvement in Indian affairs, culminating

in the complete takeover of India by the British Crown in 1858, following the Indian

Rebellion of 1857. The Pitt’s India Act was an early step in this process of increasing

government oversight.

3. Improved Accountability:

The requirement for the East India Company to submit regular reports to Parliament

ensured greater accountability. This helped to reduce the corruption and mismanagement

that had plagued the Company’s administration in the past. The act also made it clear that

the Company’s actions in India were subject to scrutiny by the British government, which

helped to curb abuses of power by Company officials.

4. Unification of Administration:

The strengthening of the Governor-General’s authority over the presidencies of Madras and

Bombay helped to create a more unified system of administration in India. This was

important for ensuring that the policies of the East India Company were consistent across

different regions of India. The centralized control of the Governor-General helped to reduce

the chaos and confusion that had existed previously.

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5. Impact on Indian Politics:

Although the Pitt’s India Act was primarily focused on improving the governance of the East

India Company, it also had important implications for Indian politics. The act marked the

beginning of a more formalized system of governance in India, where the British

government took on a more active role in shaping the policies that affected the Indian

population. This would have a lasting impact on the political and social development of India

in the years to come.

Criticisms and Limitations of Pitt’s India Act

While the Pitt’s India Act was a significant step forward in improving the governance of the

East India Company, it was not without its flaws. Some of the key criticisms and limitations

of the act are discussed below:

1. Conflict Between the Board of Control and the Company:

The dual control system introduced by the act created tensions between the Board of

Control and the Court of Directors of the East India Company. The Board of Control was

responsible for overseeing political affairs, while the Court of Directors managed

commercial activities. However, the lines between political and commercial matters were

often blurred, leading to conflicts over decision-making. These conflicts sometimes resulted

in delays and inefficiency in the administration of India.

2. Limited Scope of Reforms:

The act was primarily focused on improving the governance of the East India Company, but

it did little to address the broader social and economic issues facing India at the time. The

act did not introduce significant reforms to improve the living conditions of the Indian

population or to address the growing discontent among Indians over British rule. This would

continue to be a source of tension in the years to come.

3. Dependence on Company Officials:

Although the British government gained greater control over the Company’s operations, it

still relied heavily on the East India Company’s officials to implement policies in India. This

meant that many of the same individuals who had been responsible for the corruption and

mismanagement of the past continued to hold positions of power. As a result, some of the

problems that had plagued the Company’s administration were not fully resolved.

4. Impact on British Economy:

The act also had an impact on the British economy, as the British government had to invest

resources in overseeing the Company’s operations in India. The costs of managing India

continued to rise, and the British government would later face financial challenges as it took

on an even greater role in governing the country.

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Conclusion

In summary, the Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was a landmark piece of legislation that brought

significant reforms to the governance of the British East India Company in India. The act

introduced a system of dual control, where the British government, through the Board of

Control, gained greater oversight of the Company’s political and military activities. The act

also strengthened the authority of the Governor-General of Bengal and created a more

centralized system of administration in India.

While the act helped to reduce corruption and improve accountability, it also had its

limitations. The dual control system created conflicts between the Board of Control and the

Company’s Court of Directors, and the act did not go far enough in addressing the broader

social and economic challenges facing India. Nevertheless, the Pitt’s India Act was an

important step in the evolution of British rule in India and laid the foundation for future

reforms that would eventually lead to the British government taking full control of India in

1858.

By establishing greater government oversight, the act marked the beginning of a new era in

British-Indian relations, where the British government played an increasingly active role in

shaping the future of India.

6. Write a note on Government of India Act of 1858 and the Queen's proclamation.

Ans: The Government of India Act of 1858 was a significant turning point in the history of

India, as it officially transferred the power of governing India from the East India Company

to the British Crown. This act marked the formal beginning of direct British rule in India,

following the widespread rebellion of 1857 (often called the Indian Mutiny or the First War

of Independence). Below is a detailed overview of the key provisions and implications of the

Act, along with an explanation of Queen Victoria’s Proclamation.

Background to the Government of India Act, 1858

Before the act, India was under the control of the British East India Company, which had

been functioning as a governing body with both commercial and administrative

responsibilities since the 18th century. However, the Company faced increasing criticism for

its mismanagement, especially after the brutal suppression of the Revolt of 1857. The

rebellion revealed the weaknesses in the Company’s administration and led to demands for

a restructuring of British governance in India.

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Key Provisions of the Government of India Act, 1858

1. Abolition of the East India Company: The Act formally ended the rule of the East

India Company. All its powers, assets, and territories were transferred to the British

Crown. This effectively brought an end to the dual system of governance, in which

the Company and the British government shared authority over India.

2. Establishment of the Office of the Secretary of State for India: A new position, the

Secretary of State for India, was created. This official, a member of the British

Cabinet, was responsible for overseeing Indian affairs and was advised by a 15-

member Council of India. The Council consisted of people experienced in Indian

matters, and its main role was to advise the Secretary of State.

3. Governor-General and Viceroy of India: The office of the Governor-General of India

was retained, but the Governor-General now represented the British Crown. In

addition to this role, the Governor-General was also titled Viceroy of India,

symbolizing his role as the direct representative of the monarch.

4. Direct Rule by the Crown: The most critical change brought about by this act was

that India was now to be governed in the name of the Crown. This meant that the

British Parliament and the monarch had direct control over Indian affairs. The

administrative structure was simplified, and the dual system of governance that

existed under the East India Company was abolished.

5. Indian Civil Service: The Act also provided for the creation of the Indian Civil Service

(ICS), ensuring that administration in India would be carried out by professional civil

servants. Recruitment to the ICS was based on competitive examinations held in

London, ensuring that qualified individuals could be appointed to high administrative

positions.

Impact of the Act

The Government of India Act of 1858 laid the foundation for British imperial rule in India,

which would last until 1947. By placing India under the direct control of the British Crown,

the Act marked the beginning of a centralized administrative system. It also led to a stronger

British presence and greater involvement of the British Parliament in Indian affairs.

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858)

Following the passage of the Government of India Act, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation

on November 1, 1858, which was widely publicized in India. The proclamation was an

important document as it sought to assure the Indian people that they would now be ruled

by the Crown, and it promised certain reforms and protections to prevent future rebellions.

Some of the key elements of Queen Victoria’s Proclamation include:

1. Equality and Justice: Queen Victoria promised equal treatment for all her Indian

subjects, regardless of race, religion, or caste. She pledged that Indians would not be

discriminated against in employment within the government service.

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2. Religious Tolerance: One of the most important assurances made in the

proclamation was the protection of religious freedom. Queen Victoria assured her

Indian subjects that the British government would not interfere in religious matters

or impose any religious doctrines upon them.

3. Guarantees of Property and Rights: The proclamation guaranteed that the British

government would respect the rights and property of the Indian princes and

landowners who had remained loyal during the rebellion. It promised that their

status would be preserved and their treaties honored.

4. Pardon for Rebels: A general amnesty was declared for all those involved in the

rebellion, except for those who had committed atrocities. This was an attempt to

pacify the Indian populace and prevent further unrest.

5. Promises of Administrative Reform: The proclamation emphasized that the British

government would work towards the welfare of its Indian subjects, promising

reforms in administration to ensure peace and prosperity.

Significance of Queen Victoria’s Proclamation

The proclamation marked a significant shift in British policy towards India. It was seen as an

attempt to win back the loyalty of the Indian people after the brutal suppression of the 1857

rebellion. It also laid the groundwork for a more structured and centralized form of

governance, with the British Crown playing a more prominent and direct role. The promises

made by Queen Victoria, particularly regarding religious tolerance and equality, were

designed to prevent future uprisings and to gain the cooperation of Indian elites.

Long-term Consequences

The Government of India Act of 1858 and Queen Victoria’s Proclamation marked the

beginning of the British Raj, a period of direct imperial rule that lasted until India’s

independence in 1947. The administrative and legal changes introduced by the Act had long-

lasting impacts on India’s political structure. The creation of the Indian Civil Service ensured

that a professional bureaucracy would manage Indian affairs, though this system was often

criticized for being biased against Indians and favoring British officials.

While the Act and the proclamation promised reforms and greater fairness, in reality, many

of the promises made were not fulfilled. For instance, while the proclamation promised that

Indians would be treated equally, in practice, the British maintained their dominance, and

Indian participation in governance remained limited. Nonetheless, the Act and the

proclamation represented a turning point in the relationship between Britain and India,

setting the stage for the political and administrative developments that followed.

Conclusion

The Government of India Act of 1858 and Queen Victoria’s Proclamation were landmark

events in the history of British India. The Act formally ended the rule of the East India

Company and established direct British rule under the Crown, while the proclamation

sought to pacify the Indian population and assure them of their rights. Although the

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promises made in the proclamation were not always kept, these documents were critical in

shaping the future governance of India and set the tone for the British Raj.

This period also laid the foundations for later political developments, including the rise of

Indian nationalism and the eventual independence movement. The reforms initiated by the

Act and the proclamation, while limited in their impact, were important steps in the

transformation of British-Indian relations.

SECTION-D

7. Discuss the main features of Indian Council Act of 1892.

Ans: The Indian Councils Act of 1892 marked a significant step in the constitutional and

political development of India during British rule. Although it fell short of the demands

made by the emerging Indian nationalist leaders, it introduced key changes that expanded

the participation of Indians in the governance of their own country, albeit within a limited

framework.

Background and Historical Context

By the late 19th century, Indian society was undergoing a period of growing nationalism.

The formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 provided a platform for

educated Indians to voice their concerns and aspirations. One of their major demands was

the reform of the existing legislative councils, especially the inclusion of Indians through a

system of elections rather than appointments by the British government.

Faced with increasing nationalist sentiment, the British colonial government, under the

influence of Lord Dufferin and the Secretary of State for India, saw the need to reform the

councils. This was done partly to accommodate moderate Indian demands and partly to

maintain British dominance in India. The result was the Indian Councils Act of 1892.

Main Features of the Indian Councils Act of 1892

1. Expansion of Legislative Councils: The Act increased the number of members in both

the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils. For instance:

o The Central Legislative Council could now have between 10 and 16 members.

o The Bengal and Madras Councils were expanded to 20 members.

o The Bombay Council was limited to 8 members, while Oudh and the North-

Western Province had 15 members each.

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2. Indirect Elections: The Act introduced the concept of indirect elections to the

councils, a significant development in India’s political landscape. However, these

were not direct elections as we understand them today. Instead, the local bodies like

municipalities, district boards, and universities were allowed to elect members who

would be recommended to the Governor-General. This was seen as a partial victory

for the Indian National Congress, which had been demanding direct elections.

3. Discussion of Budget: Another significant feature was the inclusion of budget

discussions. For the first time, non-official members were allowed to discuss and

question the budget. Although they had no voting power to amend or reject it, the

mere fact that financial matters were open for discussion was a notable step

forward.

4. Representation of Indian Interests: While maintaining an official majority, the Act

allowed for the nomination of Indians to the councils. Indians were chosen through a

process of nomination by influential groups such as zamindars (landowners),

universities, and chambers of commerce. Despite the indirect nature of the process,

it represented a step toward Indian participation in governance.

5. Role of the Governor-General and Provincial Governors: The Governor-General

retained significant powers under the Act. He could appoint council members and

had the final say on legislative proposals. Provincial Governors had similar powers

within their jurisdictions, ensuring that ultimate control remained with the British.

Significance of the Indian Councils Act of 1892

The Act was significant for several reasons:

• It marked the beginning of legislative representation for Indians, albeit in a limited

manner.

• It introduced the concept of election, although indirect, which laid the foundation

for future democratic reforms.

• It allowed budget discussions and the opportunity for Indian members to critique

government policies, thereby increasing transparency.

• The Act was seen as a compromise between Indian demands for greater political

participation and the British government’s desire to maintain control.

Limitations and Drawbacks

Despite its progressive elements, the Indian Councils Act of 1892 had several limitations:

• No Direct Elections: One of the key demands of the Indian National Congress, the

introduction of direct elections, was not fulfilled. The process remained indirect, and

most members were still appointed by the British authorities.

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• Limited Powers: The powers of the Indian members remained largely symbolic. They

could discuss the budget but had no authority to amend it. Additionally, they could

only raise questions, not pass any resolutions.

• Continued British Control: The Governor-General and provincial governors retained

considerable control over the legislative process, ensuring that Indian voices could

not challenge British dominance in any meaningful way.

Conclusion

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a milestone in India’s journey toward self-governance,

but it was far from satisfactory for the growing nationalist movement. While it expanded

the role of Indians in the legislative councils, the Act did not meet the demands for direct

elections or meaningful representation. Nevertheless, it laid the groundwork for future

reforms, including the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms), which would

further expand Indian participation in governance.

This Act, therefore, represents a cautious step by the British colonial authorities to engage

with Indian political aspirations while maintaining their hold on power(

8. What were the main clauses of the Government of India Act of 1935 about

princely states? Define.

Ans: However, I'd be happy to provide information about the Government of India Act of

1935 and its provisions regarding the princely states, as this was a significant piece of

legislation in Indian history. I'll explain it in simple terms and aim for the length you

requested. Please note that while I strive for accuracy, I don't have access to external

sources in real-time, so I encourage you to verify key points with your course materials or

other reliable sources.

The Government of India Act of 1935:

The Government of India Act of 1935 was a major piece of legislation passed by the British

Parliament. It was one of the longest Acts at that time, with 321 sections and 10 schedules.

This Act was designed to give more autonomy to India, which was still under British rule,

and to reorganize the government structure of British India.

Main Clauses Regarding Princely States:

1. Federation of India: One of the most significant aspects of the Act was the proposal

to create a Federation of India. This federation was meant to include both British

India (the areas directly under British control) and the princely states. The princely

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states were territories within the Indian subcontinent that were not directly under

British rule but were in a subsidiary alliance with the British Crown.

The idea was to bring together these two different types of territories under one federal

structure. However, it's crucial to understand that joining this federation was optional for

the princely states. They had the choice to accede or not.

2. Accession of Princely States: The Act provided that princely states could join the

federation by signing an Instrument of Accession. This document would specify

which powers the ruler of the princely state was willing to transfer to the federal

government.

The princely states had the flexibility to decide which federal subjects they wanted to

accede to. They could choose from three lists: federal, provincial, and concurrent. This

meant that different princely states could have different levels of integration with the

federation.

3. Representation in Federal Legislature: The Act provided for representation of the

princely states in the federal legislature. Out of 260 seats allocated for British Indian

provinces in the Federal Assembly (the lower house), 125 seats were reserved for

representatives of the princely states.

Similarly, in the Council of State (the upper house), out of 260 seats, 104 were allocated to

representatives of the princely states. This was to ensure that the princely states had a say

in federal matters.

4. Autonomy in Internal Affairs: The Act guaranteed that the princely states would

retain autonomy in their internal affairs. This was a crucial point for many rulers of

princely states who were concerned about losing their power and privileges.

The federal government's authority over the princely states was limited to the subjects they

had agreed to in their Instrument of Accession. For all other matters, the princely states

remained sovereign within their territories.

5. Crown Representative: The Act introduced the office of the Crown Representative.

This official would be separate from the Governor-General (who was responsible for

British India) and would handle relations with the princely states.

The Crown Representative would be the British Crown's agent for dealing with the princely

states. This separation of roles was intended to give special attention to the unique status of

the princely states.

6. No Coercion to Join: The Act explicitly stated that no princely state could be

compelled to join the federation. This voluntary nature of accession was a key

feature of the Act's approach to the princely states.

The British government hoped that the advantages of joining the federation would persuade

the princely states to accede voluntarily.

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7. Protection of Treaties and Agreements: The Act guaranteed that all existing treaties

and agreements between the British Crown and the princely states would be

protected. This was important for the rulers of princely states who wanted assurance

that their existing rights and privileges would be maintained.

8. Privy Purse: While not explicitly mentioned in the Act, the concept of the Privy Purse

was indirectly supported by it. The Privy Purse was a payment made to the rulers of

princely states in return for their agreement to integrate with India. This concept

became more prominent after India's independence but had its roots in the

arrangements proposed by the 1935 Act.

9. Federal Court Jurisdiction: The Act established a Federal Court, which would have

limited jurisdiction over the princely states. This jurisdiction would only extend to

disputes between the federation and the princely states, or between two princely

states, and only if both parties agreed to the court's jurisdiction.

10. Special Responsibilities of the Governor-General: The Act gave the Governor-

General special responsibilities regarding the princely states. These included

safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of the princes and ensuring that the

federal government fulfilled its obligations to the states.

11. No Direct Elections in Princely States: Unlike in British India, where the Act

introduced some level of representative government, there was no provision for

direct elections in the princely states. The representatives of the princely states in

the federal legislature would be appointed by the rulers, not elected by the people.

12. Flexibility in Implementation: The Act allowed for a degree of flexibility in how its

provisions would be implemented in different princely states. This was in recognition

of the diverse nature of these states, which varied greatly in size, population, and

level of development.

13. Residuary Powers: In the proposed federal structure, residuary powers (powers not

explicitly mentioned in the Act) were to be vested in the princely states for their

territories. This was in contrast to British India, where residuary powers were given

to the Governor-General.

14. Financial Provisions: The Act included provisions for financial relationships between

the federation and the princely states. However, these were less detailed than those

for British India, reflecting the princely states' greater autonomy.

15. Defense and External Affairs: While the Act envisaged that defense and external

affairs would be federal subjects, it recognized that many princely states had their

own armies and some level of autonomy in external relations. The Act aimed to

gradually bring these under federal control, but with careful negotiations and

agreements with individual states.

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Implications and Context:

To understand the significance of these clauses, it's important to consider the context of the

time:

1. British Strategy: The British were trying to create a unified India while still

maintaining their control. By including the princely states in the federation, they

hoped to create a more stable and unified political structure that they could still

influence.

2. Princely States' Concerns: Many rulers of princely states were wary of losing their

power and privileges. The voluntary nature of accession and the guarantee of

internal autonomy were designed to address these concerns.

3. Diversity of Princely States: There were over 560 princely states in India at the time,

varying greatly in size and importance. The Act's flexibility was intended to

accommodate this diversity.

4. Political Landscape in India: The Act was introduced at a time when the Indian

independence movement was gaining strength. The British hoped that by offering

more autonomy, they could appease some of the demands for independence.

5. Partial Implementation: It's crucial to note that while the provincial parts of the Act

were implemented, the federal provisions never came into effect. The outbreak of

World War II in 1939 led to the suspension of these plans.

6. Post-Independence Impact: Although the federal structure proposed by the Act was

never implemented, many of its ideas influenced the post-independence structure of

India, particularly in dealing with the princely states during integration.

Challenges and Criticisms:

The provisions related to princely states in the Government of India Act of 1935 faced

several challenges and criticisms:

1. Complexity: The system of voluntary accession and variable levels of integration was

extremely complex, making implementation difficult.

2. Democratic Deficit: The Act did not provide for democratic representation within the

princely states, which was seen as a major flaw by many Indian leaders.

3. Potential for Fragmentation: Some feared that the high degree of autonomy given

to princely states could lead to a fragmented India.

4. Slow Progress: The voluntary nature of accession meant that progress towards

federation could be very slow, as each princely state had to be negotiated with

individually.

5. British Control: Critics argued that despite the appearance of autonomy, the Act still

ensured significant British control over Indian affairs.

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6. Inequality: The Act was criticized for treating the princely states differently from the

provinces of British India, potentially creating a two-tier system within the

federation.

Conclusion:

The Government of India Act of 1935's provisions regarding princely states represented a

significant attempt to bring together the diverse political entities of the Indian subcontinent

under a federal structure. It aimed to balance the interests of the British Crown, the rulers

of princely states, and the growing demands for Indian self-governance.

While the federal structure proposed by the Act never came into being, its ideas and

approaches had a lasting impact on how India dealt with the integration of princely states

after independence. The Act's legacy can be seen in the complex negotiations that took

place during the integration of princely states into independent India and Pakistan, and in

some aspects of India's federal structure today.

Understanding these provisions helps in grasping the complexities of India's political

landscape in the mid-20th century and the challenges faced in creating a unified nation from

diverse political entities. It also provides insight into the British approach to governing India

in the latter stages of colonial rule, as they attempted to maintain control while addressing

growing demands for autonomy and independence.

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